Appendix C (Table C1). Flower-visiting and pollinating insect groups and species of coffee and cacao in South America and Southeast Asia.
Flower visitors/pollinators, South America |
Flower visitors/pollinators, Southeast Asia |
Coffea arabica |
|
bees (A. mellifera, Partamona peckolti, Nonnotrigoa mellaria, N. perilampoides, N. testaceicornis, Cephalotrigona capitata, Tegragonaamalthea, T. clavipes, T. dorsalis, T. jaty, Tetragonisca angustula, Trigona almathea, T. corvine*, T. dorsalis, T. fulviventris*, T. hyalinata*, T. nigerrima, T. spiniopes, Paratrigona ornaticeps, Scaptotrigona subobscuripennis, Melipona mimetica, M. fasciata, M. quadrifasciata, Bombus pullatus, B. volucelloides, Centris festiva, Eulaema poychroma, Epicharis rustica, Melipona panamica, Megachile sp., Ceratina sp., Plebeia jatiformis, Plebeia frontalis), ants, beetles, butterflies, syrphid flies, wasps (Brachygastra augustii*) |
bees (Apis nigrocinta, A. dorsata binghami, A. cerana, Trigona (Lepidotrigona) terminate, T. (Heterotrigona) sp., Amegilla whiteheadi, Calicodoma (Callomegachile) clotho, C. (Callomegachile) terminale, C. (Eumegachinana) tub. tuberculatum, Ceratina (Ceratinidia) rugifrons, Coelioxys smithii, Nomia (Thoraconomia) thoracica, Thyreus nitidus quartinae, Torridapis ducalis, Xylocopa (Koptortosoma) smithii, Creightonella frontalis, Heriades sp., Xylocopa (Koptotorsoma) aestuans, X. (Zonohirsuta) dejeanii nigrocerulea), ants, beetles, butterflies, syrphid flies |
Coffea canephora |
|
bees (Apis nigrocinta, A. dorsata binghami, A. cerana, Trigona (Lepidotrigona) terminate, T. (Heterotrigona) sp., Amegilla sapiens, Amegilla whiteheadi, Chalicodoma (Callomegachile) terminale, C. (C.) incisum, C. (Eumegachinana) tub. tuberculatum, Ceratina (Ceratinidia) rugifrons, Coelioxys smithii, Nomia (Thoraconomia) thoracica, Thyreus nitidus quartinae, Torridapis ducalis, Xylocopa (Koptortosoma) smithii, Creightonella frontalis, Heriades sp., Xylocopa (Koptotorsoma) aestuans, X. (Zonohirsuta) dejeanii nigrocerulea), ants, beetles, butterflies, syrphid flies |
|
Theobroma cacao |
|
Forcipomyia midges (Ceratopogonidae), thrips (Frankliniella parvula), aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), bees (Eulaema merina) ceratopognide flies, cecidomyiid flies |
Forcipomyia midges (Ceratopogonidae), aphids, cecidomyiid and drosopholid flies |
Notes: The information for C. arabica are from Brazil (Nogueira-Neto et al. 1959, De Marco and Coelho 2004), Panama (Roubik 2002b), Costa Rica (Ricketts et al. 2004), Ecuador (Veddeler et al. 2006), Indonesia (Klein et al. 2003a,c), for C. canephora from Indonesia (Klein et al. 2003a,b) and Papua New Guinea (Willmer and Stone 1989), for T. cacao from Indonesia (review by Entwistle [1974], M. M. Bos, unpublished data), Costa Rica (Young 1986). Many ceratopogonid species are known to breed in cacao fields (Borkent and Wirth 1997), but flower-visiting and pollinating species are not identified to the species level. Aphids have been observed carrying pollen and causing successful pollination, but pollination is most likely to be only self-pollination due to the sedentary behavior of aphids.
*Species are observed biting holes in the base of the flowers (nectar robbers), some stingless bees are removing pollen form the stigma (Nogueira-Neto et al. 1959, Roubik 2002b).
Highlighted species are proved with single flower visits to successfully pollinate coffee flowers.
Cacao pollination is still very poorly studied. Species information of flower-visiting insects is often outdated and methodology of the investigations is rarely standardized and mostly based on incidental observations.
LITERATURE CITED
Borkent, A., and W. W. Wirth. 1997. World species of biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 233:257.
DeMarco, P., and F. M. Coehlo. 2004. Services performed by the ecosystem: forest remnants influence agricultural cultures' pollination and production. Biodiversity and Conservation 13:245–1255.
Klein, A. M., I. Steffan-Dewenter, and T. Tscharntke. 2003a. Fruit set of highland coffee increases with the diversity of pollinating bees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B. 270:955–961.
Klein, A. M., I. Steffan-Dewenter, and T. Tscharntke. 2003b. Pollination of Coffea canephora in relation to local and regional agroforestry management. Journal of Applied Ecology 40:837–845.
Klein, A. M., I. Steffan-Dewenter, and T. Tscharntke. 2003c. Bee pollination and fruit set of Coffea arabica and C. canephora (Rubiaceae). American Journal of Botany 90:153–157.
Nogueira-Neto, P., A. Carvalho, and H. Antunes. 1959. Efeito da exclusão dos insectos pollinizadores na producão do café Bourbon. Bragantia 18:441–468.
Ricketts T. H, G. C. Daily, P. R. Ehrlich, and C. D. Michener. 2004. Economic value of tropical forest to coffee production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 101:12579–12582.
Roubik, D. W. 2002. African honeybees augment neotropical coffee yield. Pages 255–266 in P. G. Kevan, and V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca, editors. Pollinating bees: the conservation link between agriculture and nature. Ministry of Environment, Brasilia, Brazil.
Veddeler, D., A. M. Klein, and T. Tscharntke. 2006. Contrasting responses of bee communities to coffee flowering at different spatial scales. Oikos 112:594-601.
Willmer, P. G., and G. N. Stone. 1989. Incidence of entomophilous pollination of lowland coffee (Coffea canephora); the role of leaf cutter bees in Papua New Guinea: Entomology Experimentalis et Applicata 50:113-124.
Young, A. M. 1986. Cocoa pollination. Cocoa Growers Bulletin 37:5–23.