Appendix A. A summary of data gathered from papers used in this meta-analysis.
For each study, we provide a reference (see Appendix B for full citations), a list of the taxa involved, a brief summary of the trait-mediated interaction (TMI), details about the study system (ecosystem, food chain length, TMI mechanism, and whether or not TMI and density-mediated interaction (DMI) effects were in opposite directions), and experimental methods (experimental scale, experimental duration, what effects were reported in the original reference, and what variable was measured). We provide the magnitude of trait-mediated effects relative to total predator effects (the response ratio), the log response ratio used for statistical analysis, and the variance of the log response ratio. The number of experimental treatment replicates, and the number of individuals within each treatment replicate (where available) are provided separately. Finally, we document the source of our data from the relevant reference.
TABLE A1. A summary of studies used for meta-analysis of trait-mediated effect sizes.
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| 1 | Beckerman et al. (1997) | Pisurina mira, nursery web hunting spider |
Melanoplus femurrubrum,
red-legged grasshopper |
Grasshoppers reduce feeding rates in the presence of spiders. | terrestrial | field | 60 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | grasshopper density | 0.6667 | 0.5108 | 1.1285 | 20 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Salamandra infraimmaculata,
fire salamander |
Arctodiaptomus similis, calanoid copepod | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0022 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Ceriodaphnia quadrangula, cladocera | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 0.9885 | 0.6874 | 0.1144 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 2 | |||
| 2 | Blaustein (1997) | Salamandra infraimmaculata,
fire salamander |
Cyzicus sp., clam shrimp | Cues from predatory salamanders cause crustaceans to delay hatching. | freshwater | lab | 50 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | Crustacean density | 0.9325 | 0.6588 | 0.0060 | 5 | n/a | Fig. 1 | ||
| 3 | Brodin and Johansson (2002) | Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Perch reduce damselfly foraging behavior; non-lethal perch do not. | freshwater | field | 150 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | number of prey emerging as adults | 0.0237 | 0.0234 | 2.8142 | 6, 12 | 33 | Text, p. 319 | ||
| 3 | Brodin and Johansson (2002) | Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Lestes sponsa, damselfly |
Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Perch reduce damselfly foraging behavior; non-lethal perch do not. | freshwater | field | 150 | three-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | zooplankton density | 0.0243 | 0.0240 | 12.8879 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 1 | |
| 4 | Crowder et al. (1997) | wading birds | Paralichthys lethostigma,
southern flounder |
Leiostomus xanthurus, spot |
Predatory birds cause spot to aggregate making them harder for flounder to catch. | marine | field | 15 | two-level | predator inhibition | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality of spot | 0.9636 | 0.6748 | 0.0003 | 4 | 395 | Table 2 | |
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 2500.0016 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Leuctra sp., stonefly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0015 | 0.0015 | 2500.2402 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Pacifastacus leniusculus,
signal crayfish |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 2500.0509 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Limnephilidae, caddisfly | Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 2500.0204 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Cottus gobio, bullhead |
Gammarus pulex, isopod |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.5957 | 0.4673 | 0.0148 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 5 | Dahl (1998) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 31 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 0.0010 | 0.0010 | 2500.0297 | 4 | n/a | Text, pg. 429 | ||
| 6 | Diehl et al. (2000) | Salmo trutta, brown trout |
Baetis bicaudatus, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 66 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | emigration and mortality rates | 0.3000 | 0.2624 | 0.5883 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Culiseta longiareolata,
mosquito |
Mosquitoes avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of larvae and pupae surviving | 0.4599 | 0.3783 | 0.0004 | 6 | 45 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Culiseta laticinctus, mosquito |
Mosquitoes avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 11 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | number of larvae and pupae surviving | 0.4925 | 0.4004 | 0.0383 | 6 | 30 | Fig. 2 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Forcipomyia sp., fly |
Flies avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of pupae surviving | 3.5610 | 1.5175 | 0.6039 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 3 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Chironomus riparius, midge |
Midges avoid ovipositing in presence of predator. | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | yes | number of pupal exuviae | 1.0428 | 0.7143 | 0.1038 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 4 | ||
| 7 | Eitam et al. (2002) | Anisops sardea, backswimmer |
Daphnia sp. | Daphnia eggs enter diapause in presence of predator | freshwater | field | 22 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | daphnia density | 0.7210 | 0.5429 | 0.0202 | 6 | n/a | Fig. 5 | ||
| 8 | Eklöv and Van Kooten (2001) | Esox lucius, pike |
Perca fluviatilis, perch |
Rutilus rutilus, roach |
Increased mortality of roach caused by perch facilitation of pike. | freshwater | field | 130 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | roach mortality | 0.2055 | 0.1869 | 0.0117 | 5 | 80 | Fig. 1A | |
| 9 | Eklöv and Werner (2000) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 1 (smallest) | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.2509 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 1 (smallest) | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.0267 | 0.0263 | 0.1034 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 2 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0005 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 2 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 50000.0000 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 3 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0055 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 3 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0004 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 4 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0009 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 4 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 5 | Bluegill consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0205 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana catesbeiana, bullfrog; size 5 | Anax consume bullfrogs. Nonlethal bluegill cues cause bullfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 1 (smallest) | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.4800 | 0.3920 | 0.0838 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 1 (smallest) | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 8 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.6014 | 0.4708 | 0.0063 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 2 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 1.5063 | 0.9188 | 0.0096 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 2 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.1103 | 0.1047 | 0.0165 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 3 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 4.2000 | 1.6487 | 0.3096 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 3 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2362 | 0.2120 | 0.0569 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 4 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2439 | 0.2183 | 0.2031 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 4 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 0.2442 | 0.2185 | 0.0420 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 5 | Anax consume greenfrogs Nonlethal bluegill cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 4 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | number of prey consumed | 1.0000 | 0.6931 | 0.0056 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 10 | Eklöv and Werner (2001) | Anax sp., dragonfly | Rana clamitans, green frog, size 5 | Bluegill consume greenfrogs. Nonlethal Anax cues cause greenfrogs to alter behavior, which may influence their survival, depending on size class | freshwater | lab | 1 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of prey consumed | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0160 | 4 | 10 | Fig. 1 | ||
| 11 | Feltmate and Williams (1989) | Oncorhynchus mykiss, rainbow trout |
Paragnetina media, stonefly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 4 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | stonefly density | 0.5746 | 0.4540 | 0.0725 | 3 | n/a | Fig. 2 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 28 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | amphipod density | 2.3931 | 1.2217 | 12.1040 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 6A | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 28 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | yes | amphipod density | 0.5947 | 0.4667 | 90.2204 | 4 | n/a | Fig. 6B | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | lab | 6 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod mortality | 0.7863 | 0.5802 | 0.0006 | 9 | 200 | Fig. 4 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Crangon crangon, shrimp |
Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | lab | 6 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod mortality | 0.8883 | 0.6357 | 0.0019 | 9 | 200 | Fig. 4 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Multiple predators | Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 21 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod density | 0.5283 | 0.4242 | 0.0004 | 6 | 200 | Fig. 8 | ||
| 12 | Flach and de Bruin (1994) | Multiple predators | Corophium volutator, C. arenarium, amphipods |
Predator effect is enhanced in the presence of competitors (the lugworm Arenicola marina and the cockle Cerastoderma edule) that make amphipods move around more. | marine | field | 21 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | amphipod density | 0.5872 | 0.4619 | 0.0024 | 6 | 200 | Fig. 8 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8666 | 0.6241 | 0.6623 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.9461 | 0.6658 | 0.2579 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Paraleptophlebia sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.9212 | 0.6530 | 1.0184 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Paraleptophlebia sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8002 | 0.5879 | 0.6858 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Ephemerella sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.8764 | 0.6293 | 0.9440 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Ephemerella sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | yes | percent drifting; percent consumed | 1.4653 | 0.9023 | 12.2114 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Eurylophella sp., Mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.2500 | 0.2231 | 91.3961 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Eurylophella sp., Mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | yes | percent drifting; percent consumed | 1.2071 | 0.7917 | 0.6533 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Stenonema sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.3576 | 0.3057 | 0.3219 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 13 | Forrester (1994) | Salvelinus fontinalis, brook charr |
Stenonema sp., mayfly |
Predators cause prey to drift in water column. | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent drifting; percent consumed | 0.1422 | 0.1330 | 0.3741 | 3 | n/a | Figs. 1, 6 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Large-sized Poecilia reticulata,
guppy |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.9380 | 0.6617 | 0.0043 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Small-sized Poecilia reticulata,
guppy |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.6006 | 0.4704 | 0.0595 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Large-sized Rivulus hartii,
jumping guabine |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.6921 | 0.5260 | 0.0773 | 4 | 4 | Table 1 | ||
| 14 | Fraser and Gilliam (1992) | Hoplias malabaricus, fish |
Small-sized Rivulus hartii,
jumping guabine |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | percent of fish emigrating or dying | 0.7504 | 0.5598 | 0.0077 | 4 | 8 | Table 1 | ||
| 15 | Grabowski, In Press | Opsanus tau, oyster toadfish |
Panopeus herbstii, mud crab |
Crassostrea virginica, oyster |
Prey hide from predators, lowering feeding rate | marine | lab | 6 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | no | percent oyster mortality | 0.9820 | 0.6841 | 0.0008 | 5 | 40 | Fig. 2 | |
| 15 | Grabowski, In Press | Opsanus tau, oyster toadfish |
Panopeus herbstii, mud crab |
Crassostrea virginica, oyster |
Prey hide from predators, lowering feeding rate | marine | lab | 7 | three-level | reduced activity | DMI, TMI, Total | yes | percent oyster mortality | 0.9560 | 0.6709 | 0.0013 | 5 | 40 | Fig. 2 | |
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Gonyostomum semen, algae |
Algae reduce recruitment rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | yes | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.6674 | 0.5113 | 0.0073 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Gonyostomum semen, algae |
Algae reduce recruitment rate in presence of predator | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.0313 | 0.0308 | 6.6198 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 16 | Hansson (2000) | Daphnia magna, zooplankton |
Anabaena sp., algae |
Anabaena benefits from predator presence because of reduced competition from other algae that have delayed recruitment | freshwater | lab | 5 | two-level | reduced activity | TMI, Total | no | recruitment rate (cells per meter per day) | 0.0744 | 0.0718 | 0.0179 | 4 | 20 | Figs. 6, 7 | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9228 | 0.6538 | 0.0001 | 3 | 12595 | Table 1, 'High' | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9350 | 0.6601 | 0.0001 | 3 | 4189 | Table 1, 'Medium' | ||
| 17 | Hurd and Eisenberg (1984) | Old field predators - not specified | Tenodera sinensis, Chinese mantid |
Prey emigrate to avoid predators | terrestrial | field | 65 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | cumulative percent mortality and dispersal | 0.9389 | 0.6621 | 0.0001 | 3 | 1303 | Table 1, 'Low' | ||
| 18 | Kelly et al. (2002) | Salmo salar, salmon |
Gammarus duebeni, amphipod |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly | Carnivorous amphipod Gammarus duebeni celticus increases drift of mayfly nymphs, thereby increasing contact with predatory salmon. | freshwater | lab | 0.125 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of Baetis eaten by salmon | 0.9736 | 0.6798 | 0.0046 | 12 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 18 | Kelly et al. (2002) | Salmo salar, salmon |
Gammarus duebeni, amphipod |
Baetis rhodani, mayfly | Carnivorous amphipod Gammarus pulex increases drift of mayfly nymphs, thereby increasing contact with predatory salmon. | freshwater | lab | 0.125 | two-level | predator facilitation | DMI, TMI | no | number of Baetis eaten by salmon | 0.9729 | 0.6795 | 0.0094 | 12 | 10 | Fig. 6 | |
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.2449 | 0.2191 | 0.0057 | 2 | 100 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.6506 | 0.5011 | 0.0001 | 2 | 200 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.5328 | 0.4271 | 0.0001 | 2 | 300 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.3035 | 0.2650 | 0.0012 | 2 | 400 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.2586 | 0.2300 | 0.0002 | 2 | 800 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 19 | Kratz (1996) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis bicaudata, mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 1.5 | two-level | emigration | DMI, TMI | no | per capita prey emigration or mortality, per predator | 0.5275 | 0.4236 | 0.0001 | 2 | 1600 | Fig. 3 | ||
| 20 | Lancaster (1990) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Baetis sp., mayfly |
Prey emigrate (drift) to avoid predators | freshwater | field | 25 | two-level | emigration | TMI, Total | no | daily per capita mortality and drift | 5.0857 | 1.8059 | 0.0533 | 10 | n/a | Table 3, Fig. 3A | ||
| 20 | Lancaster (1990) | Doroneuria baumanni, stonefly |
Chironomidae, flies |